Electroactive polymer pre-strain

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides electroactive polymers, transducers and devices that maintain pre-strain in one or more portions of an electroactive polymer. Electroactive polymers described herein may include a pre-strained portion and a stiffened portion configured to maintain pre-strain in the pre-strained portion. One fabrication technique applies pre-strain to a partially cured electroactive polymer. The partially cured polymer is then further cured to stiffen and maintain the pre-strain. In another fabrication technique, a support layer is coupled to the polymer that maintains pre-strain in a portion of an electroactive polymer. Another embodiment of the invention cures a polymer precursor to maintain pre-strain in an electroactive polymer.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) from U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 60/499,088 filed Aug. 29, 2003,naming Qibing Pei et al. as inventors, and titled “Method for ImprovingPerformance of Electroactive Polymers”, which is incorporated byreference herein for all purposes.

U.S. GOVERNMENT RIGHTS

This application was made in part with government support under contractnumber N00014-02-C-0252 awarded by the United States Office of NavalResearch. The government has certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates generally to electroactive polymers thatconvert between electrical energy and mechanical energy. Moreparticularly, the present invention relates to pre-strained electroativepolymers.

In many applications, it is desirable to convert between electricalenergy and mechanical energy. Exemplary applications requiringconversion from electrical to mechanical energy include robotics,motors, pumps, valves, speakers, sensors, microfluidic devices, generalautomation, disk drives, and prosthetic devices. These applicationsinclude one or more transducers that convert electrical energy intomechanical work—on a macroscopic or microscopic level. Exemplaryapplications requiring conversion from mechanical to electrical energyinclude sensors and generators.

New electroactive polymers capable of converting electrical energy tomechanical energy, and vice versa, are available for a wide range ofenergy conversion applications. Electroactive elastomers, one specificclass of electroactive polymer, may exhibit high energy density, stress,and electromechanical conversion efficiency. The performance of manyelectroactive polymers is notably increased when the polymer ispre-strained.

Pre-strain traditionally required deformation of the polymer bystretching the polymer in tension and fixing one or more polymer edgeswhile stretched. Sturdy and bulky support structures such as frames werecommonly used to hold the pre-strain. Mechanisms, such as a spring, havealso been used in a rolled electroactive polymer device to supportpolymer pre-strain. The dependence on frames and external mechanismsdeceases power density of electroactive polymers and their relateddevices.

In view of the foregoing, alternative techniques to acquire and maintainpre-strain in an electroactive polymer would be desirable.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides electroactive polymers, transducers anddevices that maintain pre-strain in one or more portions of anelectroactive polymer. Electroactive polymers described herein mayinclude a pre-strained portion and a stiffened portion configured tomaintain pre-strain in the pre-strained portion. In one embodiment, thepresent invention applies pre-strain to a partially cured electroactivepolymer. The partially cured polymer is then further cured to stiffenand maintain the pre-strain. In another embodiment, a support layer iscoupled to the polymer that maintains pre-strain in a portion of anelectroactive polymer.

Another embodiment of the invention cures a polymer precursor tomaintain pre-strain in an electroactive polymer. The curable polymerprecursor may be applied to a surface of an electroactive polymer sheetor film and allowed to at least partially disperse or diffuse into thefilm before curing.

In another embodiment, a precursor for a support polymer is mixed with aprecursor for an electroactive polymer before forming the polymer, e.g.,into a thin film. The precursor is cured for the support polymer to formthe support polymer in a stiffened portion of the polymer after formingthe electroactive polymer.

In one aspect, the present invention relates to an electroactive polymertransducer. The transducer comprises at least two electrodes. Thetransducer also comprises an electroactive polymer in electricalcommunication with the at least two electrodes. The electroactivepolymer includes a pre-strained portion and a stiffened portionconfigured to maintain pre-strain in the pre-strained portion.

In another aspect, the present invention relates to an electroactivepolymer transducer for converting between electrical and mechanicalenergy. The transducer comprises at least two electrodes. The transduceralso comprises an electroactive polymer in electrical communication withthe at least two electrodes and including a pre-strained portion. Thetransducer further comprises a support layer coupled to a surfaceportion of the electroactive polymer and configured to maintainpre-strain in the pre-strained portion.

In yet another aspect, the present invention relates to an electroactivepolymer transducer for converting between electrical and mechanicalenergy. The transducer comprises at least two electrodes. The transduceralso comprises an electroactive polymer in electrical communication withthe at least two electrodes. The electroactive polymer includes a firstpre-strained portion and a second pre-strained portion. The firstpre-strained portion comprises a greater pre-strain than the secondpre-strained portion.

In still another aspect, the present invention relates to a method forforming an electroactive polymer. The method comprises partially curinga composition comprising a precursor for an electroactive polymer toform a partially cured electroactive polymer. The method also comprisesstretching the partially cured electroactive polymer to achieve apre-strain for the electroactive polymer. The method additionallycomprises further curing a portion of the electroactive polymer tostiffen the portion.

In another aspect, the present invention relates to a method for formingan electroactive polymer. The method comprises stretching theelectroactive polymer to achieve a pre-strain in a portion of thepolymer. The method also comprises coupling a support layer to a surfaceportion of the polymer when the polymer is pre-strained. The supportlayer overlaps the pre-strained portion and at least partially maintainsthe pre-strain in the portion.

In yet another aspect, the present invention relates to a method forforming an electroactive polymer. The method comprises applying apolymer precursor to a surface of a portion of the electroactivepolymer. The method also comprises stretching the electroactive polymerto achieve a pre-strain. The method additionally comprises curing thepolymer precursor to stiffen said portion.

In still another aspect, the present invention relates to a method forforming an electroactive polymer. The method comprises providing acomposition comprising a precursor for an electroactive polymer and aprecursor for a support polymer. The method also comprises forming theelectroactive polymer from the composition. The method further comprisesstretching the electroactive polymer to achieve a pre-strain in aportion of the electroactive polymer. The method additionally comprisescuring the precursor for the support polymer to form the support polymerin a stiffened portion of the polymer.

These and other features and advantages of the present invention will bedescribed in the following description of the invention and associatedfigures.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A and 1B illustrate a top perspective view of a transducer beforeand after application of a voltage in accordance with one embodiment ofthe present invention.

FIG. 1C illustrates a monolithic transducer comprising a plurality ofactive areas in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 2A illustrates an electroactive polymer comprising a pre-strainedportion and a stiffened portion in accordance with one embodiment of thepresent invention.

FIG. 2B illustrates an electroactive polymer comprising a pre-strainedportion that corresponds to a stiffened portion in accordance with oneembodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 2C illustrates an electroactive polymer comprising a multiplestiffened regions patterned on a single polymer in accordance with oneembodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 3A illustrates an electroactive polymer transducer for convertingbetween electrical and mechanical in accordance with one embodiment ofthe present invention.

FIG. 3B illustrates a stretched film actuator in accordance with oneembodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 3C illustrates an electroactive polymer transducer comprisinglinear segments that affect deflection in accordance with a specificembodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 4 illustrates a dual cure process flow for forming an electroactivepolymer in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 5 illustrates a support layer coupling process flow for forming anelectroactive polymer in accordance with one embodiment of the presentinvention.

FIG. 6 illustrates a process flow that employs a polymer precursor forforming an electroactive polymer in accordance with one embodiment ofthe present invention.

FIG. 7 illustrates a process flow that employs a composition comprisinga polymer precursor for a support polymer and a precursor for anelectroactive polymer for forming an electroactive polymer in accordancewith one embodiment of the present invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

The present invention is described in detail with reference to a fewpreferred embodiments as illustrated in the accompanying drawings. Inthe following description, numerous specific details are set forth inorder to provide a thorough understanding of the present invention. Itwill be apparent, however, to one skilled in the art, that the presentinvention may be practiced without some or all of these specificdetails. In other instances, well known process steps and/or structureshave not been described in detail in order to not unnecessarily obscurethe present invention.

Overview

Electroactive polymers convert between mechanical and electrical energy.The present invention relates to electroactive polymers that arepre-strained to improve conversion between electrical and mechanicalenergy. The pre-strain enhances performance of the electroactivepolymer. For example, the pre-strain improves mechanical response of anelectroactive polymer relative to a non-strained electroactive polymer.The improved mechanical response enables greater mechanical work for anelectroactive polymer, e.g., larger deflections and actuation pressures.A 2-fold to 25-fold in area pre-strain significantly improvesperformance of many electroactive elastomers. For example, whenpre-strained, acrylic copolymer elastomers (e.g., 3M VHB 4910 providedby 3M Corporation) produce high and reversible electromechanical strainof 100% to 380% in area or linear strain. Linear strains of at leastabout 200 percent and area strains of at least about 300 percent arecommon with other pre-strained polymers of the present invention.

The pre-strain may vary in different directions of a polymer. Combiningdirectional variability of the pre-strain, different ways to constrain apolymer, scalability of electroactive polymers to both micro and macrolevels, and different polymer orientations (e.g., rolling or stackingindividual polymer layers) permits a broad range of transducers,devices, actuators, sensors and generators that convert betweenelectrical and mechanical energy.

The present invention reduces the need for a rigid frame or separatemechanism to hold pre-strain in a polymer (some devices may stillinclude a frame, but one is not needed to maintain pre-strain in thepolymer). Reducing or eliminating non-active structures such as a framefor holding pre-strain may reduce the fabrication and structuralcomplexities of an electroactive polymer device, improve the mechanicalstability of a device, permit alternative ways to package a device,increase overall device energy density, and reduce the space and weightof electroactive polymer devices.

Several techniques are described to maintain pre-strain in anelectroactive polymer. One technique employs a laminate to stiffen oneor more portions of the polymer and maintain pre-strain. Anothertechnique employs curing techniques to stiffen one or more portions ofthe polymer. In another embodiment, the present invention comprises theaddition of one or more curable polymer precursors to the electroactivepolymer. In a specific embodiment, the curable polymer precursors areapplied to a surface of an electroactive polymer sheet or film andallowed to disperse or diffuse into the film. The additives are thencured to form one or more stiffer portions.

In another aspect, the present invention provides methods forfabricating electroactive polymers and electromechanical devicesincluding one or more pre-strained electroactive polymer.

General Structure of Electroactive Polymer Transducers

The transformation between electrical and mechanical energy intransducers and devices of the present invention is based on elastanceof an electroactive polymer and energy conversion of one or moreportions of an electroactive polymer. To help illustrate the performanceof an electroactive polymer in converting electrical energy tomechanical energy, FIG. 1A illustrates a top perspective view of atransducer portion 10 in accordance with one embodiment of the presentinvention. While electroactive polymer transducers will now be describedas structures, those skilled in the area will recognize that the presentinvention encompasses a methods for performing actions as describedbelow.

The transducer portion 10 comprises an electroactive polymer 12 forconverting between electrical energy and mechanical energy. In oneembodiment, an electroactive polymer refers to a polymer that acts as aninsulating dielectric between two electrodes and may deflect uponapplication of a voltage difference between the two electrodes. Polymer12 is in electrical communication with electrodes 14 and 16. Morespecifically, top and bottom electrodes 14 and 16 attach toelectroactive polymer 12 on its top and bottom surfaces, respectively,to provide a voltage difference across a portion of the polymer 12.Polymer 12 deflects with a change in electric field provided by the topand bottom electrodes 14 and 16. Deflection of the transducer portion 10in response to a change in electric field provided by the electrodes 14and 16 is referred to as actuation. As the polymer 12 changes in size,the deflection may be used to produce mechanical work.

FIG. 1B illustrates a top perspective view of the transducer portion 10including deflection in response to a change in electric field. Ingeneral, deflection refers to any displacement, expansion, contraction,bulging, torsion, linear or area strain, or any other deformation of aportion of the polymer 12. The change in electric field corresponding tothe voltage difference applied to or by the electrodes 14 and 16produces mechanical pressure within polymer 12. In this case, the unlikeelectrical charges produced by electrodes 14 and 16 attract each otherand provide a compressive force between electrodes 14 and 16 and anexpansion force on polymer 12 in planar directions 18 and 20, causingpolymer 12 to compress between electrodes 14 and 16 and stretch in theplanar directions 18 and 20.

After application of the voltage between electrodes 14 and 16, polymer12 expands (stretches) in both planar directions 18 and 20. In somecases, polymer 12 is incompressible, e.g. has a substantially constantvolume under stress. For an incompressible polymer 12, polymer 12decreases in thickness as a result of the expansion in the planardirections 18 and 20. It should be noted that the present invention isnot limited to incompressible polymers and deflection of the polymer 12may not conform to such a simple relationship.

In general, the transducer portion 10 continues to deflect untilmechanical forces balance the electrostatic forces driving thedeflection. The mechanical forces include elastic restoring forces ofthe polymer 12 material, the compliance of electrodes 14 and 16, and anyexternal resistance provided by a device and/or load coupled to thetransducer portion 10, etc. The deflection of the transducer portion 10as a result of the applied voltage may also depend on a number of otherfactors such as the polymer 12 dielectric constant and the size ofpolymer 12.

Application of a relatively large voltage difference between electrodes14 and 16 on the transducer portion 10 shown in FIG. 1A thus causestransducer portion 10 to change to a thinner, larger area shape as shownin FIG. 1B. In this manner, the transducer portion 10 convertselectrical energy to mechanical energy. The use of transducer portion 10to convert mechanical energy to electrical energy will be describedbelow.

As shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B, electrodes 14 and 16 cover the entireportion of polymer 12 as shown. More commonly, electrodes 14 and 16cover a limited portion of polymer 12 relative to the total surface areaof the polymer. This may be done to prevent electrical breakdown aroundthe edge of polymer 12. Electrodes may also be patterned with specialshapes to achieve customized surface deflections, as will be describedin further detail below. Alternatively, this may be done to utilizeincompressibility of the polymer and produce surface features anddeformations on one or more of the polymer surfaces.

As the term is used herein, an active area refers to a portion of atransducer comprising polymer material 12 and at least two electrodes.When the active area is used to convert electrical energy to mechanicalenergy, the active area includes a portion of polymer 12 havingsufficient electrostatic force to enable deflection of the portion. Whenthe active area is used to convert mechanical energy to electricalenergy, the active area includes a portion of polymer 12 havingsufficient deflection to enable a change in electrostatic energy. Aswill be described below, a polymer of the present invention may havemultiple active areas.

Generally, polymers that are suitable for use with transducers of thisinvention include any substantially insulating polymer or rubber (orcombination thereof) that deforms in response to an electrostatic forceor whose deformation results in a change in electric field. Preferably,the polymer's deformation is reversible over a wide range of strains.Many elastomeric polymers may serve this purpose. In designing orchoosing an appropriate polymer, one should consider the optimalmaterial, physical, and chemical properties. Such properties can betailored by judicious selection of monomer (including any side chains),additives, degree of cross-linking, crystallinity, molecular weight,etc.

Polymer 12 may assume many different physical and chemical states. Forexample, the polymer may be used with or without additives such asplasticizers. And they may be monolithic polymeric sheets orcombinations of polymers such as laminates or patchworks. Further, thepolymers may exist in a single phase or multiple phases. One example ofa multiphase material is a polymeric matrix having inorganic fillerparticles admixed therewith.

Regardless of the ultimate chemical and physical state of the transducerpolymer, it will include a polymer matrix. That matrix may be ahomopolymer or copolymer, cross-linked or uncross-linked, linear orbranched, etc. Exemplary classes of polymer suitable for use withtransducers of this invention include silicone elastomers, acrylicelastomers, polyurethanes, thermoplastic elastomers, copolymerscomprising PVDF, pressure-sensitive adhesives, fluoroelastomers,polymers comprising silicone and acrylic moieties, and the like.Obviously, combinations of some of these materials may be used as thepolymer matrix in transducers of this invention. Copolymers and blendsfall within the class of suitable polymers. One example is a blend of asilicone elastomer and an acrylic elastomer.

One suitable commercially available polymer is NuSil CF19-2186 asprovided by NuSil Technology of Carpenteria, Calif. An example of asuitable silicone elastomer is Dow Coming HS3 as provided by Dow Corningof Wilmington, Del. One example of a suitable fluorosilicone is DowCorning 730 as provided by Dow Corning of Wilmington, Del. Examples ofsuitable acrylics include any acrylic in the 4900 VHB acrylic series asprovided by 3M Corp. of St. Paul, Minn.

Suitable actuation voltages for electroactive polymers, or portionsthereof, may vary based on the material properties of the electroactivepolymer, such as the dielectric constant, as well as the dimensions ofthe polymer, such as the thickness of the polymer film. For example,actuation electric fields used to actuate polymer 12 in FIG. 1A mayrange in magnitude from about 0 V/m to about 440 MV/m. Actuationelectric fields in this range may produce a pressure in the range ofabout 0 Pa to about 10 MPa. In order for the transducer to producegreater forces, the thickness of the polymer layer may be increased.Actuation voltages for a particular polymer may be reduced by increasingthe dielectric constant, decreasing the polymer thickness, anddecreasing the modulus of elasticity, for example.

In one embodiment, polymer 12 is compliant and selected based on itselastance. A modulus of elasticity for polymer 12 less than about 100MPa is suitable for many embodiments. In one specific embodiment,electroactive polymer 12 includes an elastic modulus less than 40 MPa.In another specific embodiment, electroactive polymer 12 is relativelycompliant and includes an elastic modulus less than 10 MPa.

Transducers and polymers of the present invention are not limited to anyparticular geometry or type of deflection. For example, the polymer andelectrodes may be formed into any geometry or shape including tubes androlls, stretched polymers attached between multiple rigid structures,stretched polymers of any geometry maintained by techniques describedherein—including curved or complex geometry's, across a frame having oneor more joints, etc. Deflection of a transducer according to the presentinvention may include linear expansion and/or compression in one or moredirections, bending, axial deflection when the polymer is rolled,deflection out of a hole provided in a substrate, etc. Deflection of atransducer may be affected by how the polymer is constrained by a frame,rigid structures attached to the polymer, or stiffened portions of thepolymer (e.g., via curing or a laminate). In a specific embodiment, aflexible material that is stiffer in elongation than the polymer isattached to one side of a transducer induces bending when the polymer isactuated.

Linear strain and area strain may be used to describe the deflection ofa pre-strained polymer. As the term is used herein, linear strain of apre-strained polymer refers to the deflection per unit length along aline of deflection relative to the unactuated state. Maximum linearstrains (tensile or compressive) of at least about 50 percent are commonfor pre-strained polymers of the present invention. Of course, a polymermay deflect with a strain less than the maximum, and the strain may beadjusted by adjusting the applied voltage. For some pre-strainedpolymers, maximum linear strains of at least about 100 percent arecommon. For polymers such as VHB 4910 as produced by 3M Corporation ofSt. Paul, Minn., maximum linear strains in the range of 40 to 215percent are common. Area strain of an electroactive polymer refers tothe change in planar area, e.g. the change in the plane defined bydirections 108 and 110 in FIGS. 1A and 1B, per unit area of the polymerupon actuation relative to the unactuated state. Maximum area strains ofat least about 100 percent are possible for pre-strained polymers of thepresent invention. For some pre-strained polymers, maximum area strainsin the range of 70 to 330 percent are common.

As electroactive polymers of the present invention may deflect at highstrains, electrodes attached to the polymers should also deflect withoutcompromising mechanical or electrical performance. Generally, electrodessuitable for use with the present invention may be of any shape andmaterial provided that they are able to supply a suitable voltage to, orreceive a suitable voltage from, an electroactive polymer. The voltagemay be either constant or varying over time. In one embodiment, theelectrodes adhere to a surface of the polymer. Electrodes adhering tothe polymer may be compliant and conform to the changing shape of thepolymer. The electrodes may be only applied to a portion of anelectroactive polymer and define an active area according to theirgeometry. As will be described below, the electrodes may also bepatterned to achieve a desired shape for a surface feature created bydeflection of the polymer.

In one embodiment, electrodes 14 and 16 are compliant and conform to theshape of an electroactive polymer to which they are attached. Referringback to FIG. 1A and 1B, the configuration of polymer 12 and electrodes14 and 16 provides for increasing polymer 12 response with deflection.More specifically, as the transducer portion 10 deflects, compression ofpolymer 12 brings the opposite charges of electrodes 14 and 16 closerand the stretching of polymer 12 separates similar charges in eachelectrode. In one embodiment, one of the electrodes 14 and 16 is ground.

Various types of electrodes suitable for use with the present inventionare described in commonly owned, copending U.S. patent application Ser.No. 09/619,848, which is incorporated by reference herein for allpurposes. Electrodes described therein and suitable for use with thepresent invention include structured electrodes comprising metal tracesand charge distribution layers, textured electrodes, conductive greasessuch as carbon greases or silver greases, colloidal suspensions, highaspect ratio conductive materials such as carbon fibrils and carbonnanotubes, and mixtures of ionically conductive materials. The presentinvention may also employ metal and semi-inflexible electrodes. In oneembodiment, the metal is disposed in thin sheets such that the metallayer, like tin foil for example, is flexible out-of-plane butrelatively rigid in plane. Another flexible out-of-plane but relativelyrigid in plane electrode may comprise a sheet of aluminized mylar. Inanother embodiment, the metal is disposed in thick sheets such that themetal layer is rigid and restrains the polymer from deflection on theattached surface.

Materials used for electrodes of the present invention may vary.Suitable materials used in an electrode may include graphite, carbonblack, colloidal suspensions, thin metals including silver and gold,silver filled and carbon filled gels and polymers, gelatin, andionically or electronically conductive polymers. In a specificembodiment, an electrode suitable for use with the present inventioncomprises 80 percent carbon grease and 20 percent carbon black in asilicone rubber binder such as Stockwell RTV60-CON as produced byStockwell Rubber Co. Inc. of Philadelphia, Pa. The carbon grease is ofthe type such as NyoGel 756G as provided by Nye Lubricant Inc. ofFairhaven, Mass. The conductive grease may also be mixed with anelastomer, such as silicon elastomer RTV 118 as produced by GeneralElectric of Waterford, N.Y., to provide a gel-like conductive grease.

It is understood that certain electrode materials may work well withparticular polymers and may not work as well for others. For mosttransducers, desirable properties for the compliant electrode mayinclude one or more of the following: low modulus of elasticity, lowmechanical damping, low surface resistivity, uniform resistivity,chemical and environmental stability, chemical compatibility with theelectroactive polymer, good adherence to the electroactive polymer, andthe ability to form smooth surfaces. In some cases, a transducer of thepresent invention may implement two different types of electrodes, e.g.,a different electrode type for each active area or different electrodetypes on opposing sides of a polymer.

Electronic drivers are typically connected to the electrodes. Thevoltage provided to an electroactive polymer will depend upon specificsof a transducer and application. In one embodiment, a transducer of thepresent invention is driven electrically by modulating an appliedvoltage about a DC bias voltage. Modulation about a bias voltage allowsfor improved sensitivity and linearity of the transducer to the appliedvoltage. For example, a transducer used in an audio application may bedriven by a signal of up to 200 to 1000 volts peak to peak on top of abias voltage ranging from about 750 to 2000 volts DC.

In accordance with the present invention, the term “monolithic” is usedherein to refer to electroactive polymers, transducers, and devicescomprising a plurality of active areas on a single polymer. FIG. 1Cillustrates a monolithic transducer 150 comprising a plurality of activeareas in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. Themonolithic transducer 150 converts between electrical energy andmechanical energy. The monolithic transducer 150 comprises anelectroactive polymer 151 having two active areas 152 a and 152 b.

Active area 152 a has top and bottom electrodes 154 a and 154 b that areattached to polymer 151 on its top and bottom surfaces 151 c and 151 d,respectively. The electrodes 154 a and 154 b provide a voltagedifference across a portion 151 a of polymer 151. The portion 151 adeflects with a change in electric field provided by the electrodes 154a and 154 b. More specifically, portion 151 a expands in the plane andthins vertically—or orthogonal to the plane—with a suitable voltagedifference across a portion 151 a. The portion 151 a comprises thepolymer 151 between the electrodes 154 a and 154 b and any otherportions of the polymer 151 having sufficient stress induced by theelectrostatic force to enable deflection and thinning upon applicationof voltages using the electrodes 154 a and 154 b.

Active area 152 b has top and bottom electrodes 156 a and 156 b that areattached to the polymer 151 on its top and bottom surfaces 151 c and 151d, respectively. The electrodes 156 a and 156 b provide a voltagedifference across a portion 151 b of polymer 151. The portion 151 bdeflects with a change in electric field provided by the electrodes 156a and 156 b. More specifically, portion 151 a expands in the plane andthins vertically—or orthogonal to the plane—with a suitable voltagedifference across a portion 151 a. The portion 151 b comprises polymer151 between the electrodes 156 a and 156 b and any other portions of thepolymer 151 having sufficient stress induced by the electrostatic forceto enable deflection upon application of voltages using the electrodes156 a and 156 b.

Active areas 152 a and 152 b permit independent control via theirrespective electrodes. Thus, in conjunction with suitable controlelectronics, active areas 152 a and 152 b may be actuated individually,simultaneously, intermittently, etc.

So far, electrodes on opposite surfaces of an electroactive polymerdescribed so far have been symmetrical in size, shape and location.Electrodes on opposite sides of a transducer of the present inventionare not limited to symmetrical designs or layouts and may have differentsizes, shapes, types, and/or locations on opposite surfaces of anelectroactive polymer. Electrodes on a polymer may be patterned asdesired. For example, one or more electrodes may be sprayed onto asurface of a polymer in the shape determined by a mask or stencil.Different masks may be used for each polymer surface. Customizedelectrode shape allows customized deflections from a polymer portion.Control of electrodes for each active area then allow eachcustom-patterned active area to be activated individually,simultaneously, intermittently, etc.

Electroactive Polymer Pre-strain

Electroactive polymer 12—or one or more portions thereof—ispre-strained. The performance of many polymers is notably increased whenthe polymers are pre-strained in area. For many polymers, pre-strainimproves conversion between electrical and mechanical energy. Theimproved mechanical response enables greater mechanical work for anelectroactive polymer, e.g., larger deflections and actuation pressures.In one embodiment, pre-strain improves the dielectric strength of thepolymer. For example, a 10-fold to 25-fold increase in areasignificantly improves performance of many electroactive elastomers.

In one embodiment, the pre-strain is elastic. In principle, anelastically pre-strained polymer may have any forces or alterations thatmaintain the pre-strain removed and return to its original unstrainedstate.

The pre-strain may comprise elastic deformation of polymer 12 and beformed, for example, by stretching the polymer in tension and applyingone or more of the techniques described herein while the polymer isstretched. In one embodiment, portions of an electroactive polymer, or apolymer precursor added to the polymer, are cured or otherwise stiffenedto increase their stiffness and hold pre-strain for one ore moreportions of a polymer. This allows pre-strain to be held without anexternal frame. The present invention may also employ one or more stifflayers laminated onto the polymer to maintain pre-strain for one or moreportions of the polymer.

Pre-strain of a polymer may be described, in one or more directions, asthe change in dimension in a direction after pre-straining relative tothe dimension in that direction before pre-straining. In one embodiment,pre-strain is applied uniformly over a portion of polymer 12 to producean isotropic pre-strained polymer. By way of example, an acrylicelastomeric polymer may be stretched by 200 to 400 percent in bothplanar directions 18 and 20 (FIG. 1A). In another embodiment, pre-strainis applied unequally in different directions for a portion of polymer 12to produce an anisotropic pre-strained polymer. In this case, polymer 12may deflect greater in one direction than another when actuated. Whilenot wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that pre-straining apolymer in one direction may increase the stiffness of the polymer inthe pre-strain direction. Correspondingly, the polymer is relativelystiffer in the high pre-strain direction and more compliant in the lowpre-strain direction and, upon actuation, more deflection occurs in thelow pre-strain direction. In one embodiment, deflection in direction 18of transducer portion 10 may be enhanced by employing a large pre-strainin perpendicular direction 20. For example, an acrylic elastomericpolymer used as the transducer portion 10 may be stretched by 10 percentin direction 18 and by 500 percent in the perpendicular direction 20.

The quantity of pre-strain for a polymer may be based on theelectroactive polymer material and a desired performance of theelectroactive polymer transducer in an actuator, generator, sensor orapplication. For some polymers of the present invention, pre-strain inone or more directions may range from −100 percent to 600 percent. Byway of example, for a VHB acrylic elastomer having isotropic pre-strain,pre-strains of at least about 100 percent, and preferably between about200-400 percent, may be used in each direction. In one embodiment, thepolymer is pre-strained by a factor in the range of about 1.5 times to50 times the original area. For an anisotropic acrylic pre-strained toenhance actuation in a compliant direction, pre-strains between about400-500 percent may be used in the stiffened direction and pre-strainsbetween about 20-200 percent may be used in the compliant direction. Insome cases, pre-strain may be added in one direction such that anegative pre-strain occurs in another direction, e.g. 600 percent in onedirection coupled with −100 percent in an orthogonal direction. In thesecases, the net change in area due to the pre-strain is typicallypositive. Pre-strain suitable for use with the present invention isfurther described in commonly owned, U.S. Pat. No. 6,545,384, which isincorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes.

Pre-strain may affect other properties of the polymer 12. Largepre-strains may change the elastic properties of the polymer and bringit into a stiffer regime with lower viscoelastic losses. For somepolymers, pre-strain increases the electrical breakdown strength of thepolymer 12, which allows for higher electric fields to be used withinthe polymer—permitting higher actuation pressures and higherdeflections.

The pre-strain may be imposed for substantially the entire polymer ormay also be implemented locally for a portion of the polymer. Differentportions of the polymer may also include different pre-strains, as willbe described below (e.g., FIG. 2C).

Exemplary Pre-strain Configurations

The present invention maintains pre-strain for one or more portions ofan electroactive polymer using a stiffened portion of the polymer and/ora laminate. There are countless configurations for an electroactivepolymer, transducer or device having a stiffened portion shaped as aframe or one or more structural support portions that maintainspre-strain for a polymer or portion thereof. Numerous examples of framesand structural elements for electroactive polymer devices are furtherdescribed in commonly owned U.S. Pat. No. 6,545,384, which wasincorporated by reference above. Several exemplary electroactive polymerconfigurations are now provided to facilitate discussion.

FIG. 2A illustrates an electroactive polymer 40 comprising apre-strained portion 42 and a stiffened portion 44 in accordance withone embodiment of the present invention. Pre-strained portion 42includes a portion of polymer 40 that includes pre-strain, such as ananisotropic and/or elastic pre-strain.

Stiffened portion 44 is configured to maintain pre-strain in thepre-strained portion 42. Stiffened portion 44 serves as a structuralelement that holds and maintains pre-strain in pre-strained portion 42.More specifically, stiffened portion 44 is configured to provide forcesthat oppose elastic contraction forces in the stretched pre-strainedportion 42 generated when pre-strained portion 42 was stretched toattain its pre-strain. Stiffened portion 44 thus provides mechanicalstability for polymer 40. As shown, stiffened portion 44 comprises arectangular window that perimetrically borders pre-strained portion 42.

Stiffened portion 44 comprises a portion of polymer 40 having a greaterstiffness than pre-strained portion 42 (or is less compressible). In oneembodiment, stiffened polymer portion comprises an elastic modulusgreater than about 10 MPa. In another embodiment, stiffened polymerportion comprises an elastic modulus greater than about 50 MPa.

In one embodiment, stiffened portion 44 comprises a polymer componentthat was cured while electroactive polymer 40 was pre-strained to atleast partially maintain the pre-strain in pre-strained portion 42. Aswill be described in further detail below, stiffened portion 44 may alsobe formed via curing polymer 40 in the area designated by stiffenedportion 44 as shown, curing a polymer precursor included in the areadesignated by stiffened portion 44, or laminating a support layer ontothe area designated by stiffened portion 44.

One or more electrodes may be disposed on both surfaces of pre-strainedportion 42 to create an active area within stiffened portion 44. FIG. 3Billustrates a stretched film actuator where electrodes 275 and 276 arepatterned on a top and bottom surface of pre-strained portion 273 withina frame 271 cured into the polymer. In this case, pre-strained portionpolymer 273 does not need to include the mechanism used to stiffen frame271. For example, if a polymer precursor is cured to stiffen frame 271,pre-strained portion polymer 273 may not include the polymer precursoror may include the polymer precursor without significant curing.

In one embodiment, electroactive polymer 40 comprises a compliantelectroactive polymer film and a support polymer formed in or on thecompliant electroactive polymer film that defines the stiffened polymerportion 44. Techniques for forming the support polymer, such as curing,are described below.

Stiffened portion 44 provides ‘in-situ’ but separate mechanical supportfor pre-strained portion 42. That is, electroactive polymer 40 does notinclude an external frame or an external mechanism configured tomaintain pre-strain in pre-strained portion 42, and instead relies onportions of polymer 40 having increased stiffness. This simplifiesmanufacture of transducers and devices employing polymer 40 andincreases the power density of the transducers and devices.

As opposed to separating the stiffened portion and the pre-strainedportion as in FIG. 2A, the present invention may also stiffen portionsof electroactive polymer (or an entire polymer) to create pre-strainedportions that include stiffening. In this case, the stiffened portionslocally support the pre-strain and the common pre-strained/stiffenedportions are intended to deflect. Thus, the stiffened portions lock inpre-strain while letting the common stiffened/pre-strained portionsareas still move. This advantageously provides polymer sheets thatinclude pre-strain but eliminate the need for a frame to hold thepolymer to maintain pre-strain. A frame may still be used for otherreasons, such as to couple to the polymer in a device, but the stressesapplied onto the polymer from the frame in holding the pre-strain areeliminated. This creates a polymer, or portions thereof, that includepre-strain but no stresses in the polymer for holding the pre-strain.

FIG. 2B illustrates an electroactive polymer 60 comprising apre-strained portion 62 that corresponds to a stiffened portion 64 inaccordance with one embodiment of the present invention. As shown,stiffened portion 64 comprises substantially the entire electroactivepolymer 60. In addition, pre-strained portion 62 coincides in surfacearea with stiffened portion 64 and comprises substantially the entireelectroactive polymer 60. In this case, portions of polymer 60 that havebeen stiffened maintain the pre-strain internally. In other words,pre-strain portion 62 has been stiffened to provide forces that opposeelastic contraction forces in the stretched pre-strained portion 62generated when pre-strained portion 62 was stretched to attain itspre-strain.

In one embodiment, stiffened portion 64 comprises an electroactivepolymer that was cured while the entire polymer 60 was stretched toattain a desired stiffness, compliance or pre-strain level. In thiscase, the common stiffened portion 64/pre-strained portion 62 mayinclude all portions of polymer 60 that were cured save those needed tohold the polymer that were inaccessible to the cure since they were usedto hold the pre-strain in fabrication (e.g., those that were not visibleto a radiation cure). For a thermal cure, the common stiffened portion64/pre-strained portion 62 may include the entire polymer 60.

In another embodiment, stiffened portion 64 comprises a polymercomponent that was added to the entire electroactive polymer 60 andcured while the entire polymer 60 was stretched. Again, this may excludeportions that were inaccessible to adding the polymer component.Patterning using a mask when adding the polymer component or patteringwith a mask in the cure may be used to create custom sized pre-strainedportions 62. Alternatively, the polymer component may be added to theentire polymer 60 and the entire polymer cured (e.g., thermally in anoven) to pre-strain and stiffen the entire polymer 60.

Curing a polymer precursor may also form pre-strained portion 62(whether the whole polymer 60 or a portion thereof). Again, patterningusing a mask when adding the polymer precursor or pattering with a maskin the cure may be used to create custom sized pre-strained portions 62.Or the entire polymer may be pre-strained and stiffened in this manner,e.g., create a stiffened portion that resembles pre-strained portion 62and polymer 60 dimensions.

Curing a precursor for a support polymer mixed in a compositioncomprising a precursor for an electroactive polymer and a precursor fora support polymer may also form pre-strained portion 62. In oneembodiment, the cured composition technique stiffens the entire polymer60 and creates a stiffened portion that comprises the entireelectroactive polymer with substantially uniform pre-strain properties.

Pre-strain also shown in FIG. 2B may also increase breakdown voltage forthe polymer. This improves polymer use as insulation and a capacitorthan the same polymer without pre-strain. In addition, polymer 60includes no applied pre-strain stresses at the actuator level resultingfrom use of a frame to support the pre-strain.

Although FIG. 2B illustrates a stiffened portion 64 that spatiallycoincides with the size of the entire polymer 60, it is understood thatsmaller portions of 60 may include pre-strained portions that coincidein surface area with stiffened portion. For example, a mask may be usedto create the shapes shown in FIG. 2C (with no bordering supportportions).

FIG. 2C illustrates an electroactive polymer 80 comprising a multiplestiffened regions 82, 84 and 86 patterned on a single polymer inaccordance with one embodiment of the present invention. Stiffenedportions 82 border and maintain pre-strain for square pre-strainedportions 83, while stiffened portions 84 border and maintain pre-strainfor circular pre-strained portions 85. Pre-strained portions 86 includestiffened portions that spatially coincide with the pre-strainedportions 86 and comprise less rigidity than stiffened portions 82 and 84so as to permit deflection of the common pre-strained portions/stiffenedportion 86.

Polymer 80 permits batch manufacture of multiple electroactive polymertransducers and simplifies manufacture of transducers and devicescomprising pre-strained portions 83 and 85 and their respectivestiffened regions. Patterning numerous stiffened regions 82 and 84 usinga photo cure single mask, for example, permits one stretching action forthe entire electroactive polymer 80 to achieve pre-strain for the entirepolymer and all pre-strained portions 83, 85 and 86 formed thereon.Photo curing the different portions to greater and lesser extents maythen produce the desired stiffness in each portion. For example,pre-strained portion 86 a may include increased curing and stiffening,thus producing a stiffer polymer and increased pre-strain in portion 86a, relative to portion 86 b which comprises less curing and stiffening,thus producing a softer polymer and decreased pre-strain in portion 86b.

In one embodiment, stiffened region 82 comprises a greater stiffnessthan stiffened region 84. Several techniques for differential stiffnessare described below. For example, stiffened region 82 may comprise alarge stiffness that fully maintains pre-strain imposed on pre-strainedportion 83, while stiffened region 84 may comprise a smaller stiffnessthat partially maintains pre-strain imposed on pre-strained portion 83,e.g., maintains half the pre-strain in each direction. When polymer 80includes a consistent pre-strain throughout, this differential stiffnesscreates regions on a single electroactive polymer with differentialpre-strain. Thus, electroactive polymer 80 comprises a pre-strainedportion 83 having a greater pre-strain than the second pre-strainedportion 85.

Each pre-strained portion and stiffened portion may be formed using asuitable mask or etch technique. Each pre-strained portion 85 andstiffened portion 84 may be used in a diaphragm actuator, for example.The diaphragm actuators include stiff portions 84 and polymer that spansa hole in the stiff portion 84 covered with an electrode 88. Eachpre-strained portion 83 and stiffened portion 82 may be used in astretched film actuator (FIG. 2D), for example. Pre-strained portion 86b may be used in a rolled electroactive polymer actuator, generator orsensor. Pre-strained portion 86 a may be used in a linear bowtieactuator. Each pre-strained portion may be punch cut from polymer 80 toprogress individual manufacturing for each polymer portion. Separationof each pre-strained portion from polymer may occur before or afterelectrodes have been added. As shown, electrodes 88 have been added toeach pre-strained portion.

Although electroactive polymer 80 is illustrated with differentpre-strained portion shapes, it is understood that each pre-strainedportion for a single polymer may include that same shape. In this case,anisotropic pre-strain may be applied to the entire polymer 80 and eachportion patterned thereon. In one embodiment, pre-strained portion 83and pre-strained portion 85 each comprise a polymer component that hasbeen cured, at least partially, to stiffen each portion. Applying a maskduring curing may then customize the shape, size and stiffness (the maskincludes selective permeability to the curing energy) for each portionon polymer 80. In another embodiment, electroactive polymer 80 comprisesa compliant electroactive polymer film and a support polymer formed inor on the compliant electroactive polymer film. In this case, the amountof support polymer applied to different portions of polymer andpermitted to diffuse into the polymer is varied to control the stiffnessor pre-strain level for a portion. For example, pre-strained portion 85may comprise a greater concentration of the support polymer thanpre-strained portion 83.

FIG. 3A illustrates an electroactive polymer transducer 100 forconverting between electrical and mechanical in accordance with oneembodiment of the present invention. Transducer 100 comprises polymer102, electrodes 104 and 106 and support layer 108. Electroactive polymer102 is in conductive electrical communication with electrodes 104 and106 and includes a pre-strained portion 110.

Support layer 108 is coupled to a surface portion 109 of theelectroactive polymer 102 and configured to maintain pre-strain inportion 110. Support layer 108 serves as a structural element that holdsand maintains pre-strain in pre-strained portion 110. More specifically,support layer 108 provides forces that oppose elastic contraction forcesin the stretched pre-strained portion 110. Support layer is alsoconfigured to deflect with deflection of electroactive polymer 102.Thus, while support layer 108 includes a suitable stiffness to maintainpre-strain in portion 110, it is understood that support layer 108 iscompliant enough to comply with actuation or other deflection of polymer102.

The stiffness for support layer 108 may be chosen to achieve anaggregate stiffness for the combined layer 108 and polymer 102. In oneembodiment, the combined layer 108 and polymer 102 possess an elasticmodulus less than about 10 MPa. Stiffness for support layer 108 may betuned to match the stiffness for polymer 102. It is understood that thestiffness provided by support layer 108 is dependent on the elasticmodulus for support layer 108 and the layer 108 thickness. In oneembodiment, support layer 108 comprises a greater stiffness than polymer102. In a specific embodiment, support layer 108 comprises an elasticmodulus greater than about 50 MPa. In this case, thickness of layer 108may be reduced when increased deflection for an electrical input isdesired. In another embodiment, support layer 108 is relatively soft toincrease electrically-induced strain and comprises an elastic modulusless than about 10 MPa.

Surface portion 109 represents an area on a surface of polymer 102 thatcontacts support layer 108. As shown, support layer 108 overlapspre-strained portion 110. Overlapping between support layer 108 andpre-strained portion 110 refers to at least partial intersection on asurface of polymer 108 between support layer 108 and portion 110.Typically, this is taken from a surface area view and it is understoodthat both the support layer 108 and portion 110 may not be visible.Support layer 108 also overlaps electrode 104. In one embodiment,support layer 108 extends beyond electrode 104 and attaches to thepolymer outside electrode 104 (or overlaps other electrodescorresponding to multiple active areas on the polymer). In a specificembodiment, support layer 108 resembles the shape of polymer portion orelectrode it covers. As polymer portions and electrodes of anelectroactive polymer transducer may include custom shapes such asgeometric shapes, surface portion 109 may thus resemble a geometricshape that matches the surface shape of the polymer portion orelectrode.

Coupling between support layer 108 and the surface of polymer 102 maycomprise lamination, attachment using a suitable adhesive based on thematerials being bonded, attachment through an intermediate layer such asan adhesive layer, etc. Lamination may comprise any suitable chemicalbonding between the two surfaces as determined by the two materialsbeing bonded. In one embodiment, support layer 108 comprises the samematerial as polymer 102 to facilitate lamination therebetween. In thiscase, support layer 108 is disposed onto polymer 102 in a differentstress that overcomes at least balances elastic contraction forces inthe stretched pre-strained portion 110.

In one embodiment, support layer 108 comprises an electrical resistanceless than that of the electroactive polymer. The resistance may be lowenough to achieve reasonable charging time for an application andconductive enough in the presence of parasitic leakage (e.g. through theair). In this case, support layer 108 support layer can be configured asan electrode for the transducer.

FIG. 3B illustrates a stretched film actuator 270 for providing lineardeflection in accordance with another embodiment of the presentinvention. The stretched film actuator 270 includes a stiffened polymerframe portion 271 having a hole 272. Stiffened polymer frame portion 271maintains pre-strain for a pre-strained polymer portion 273 that restsin tension and spans hole 272. A rigid bar 274 attaches to a centralregion of the polymer portion 273 and provides external displacementcorresponding to deflection of the polymer portion 273. Compliantelectrodes pairs 275 and 276 are patterned on both top and bottomsurfaces of the polymer portion 273 on the left and right sides,respectively, of the rigid bar 274. When the electrode pair 275 isactuated, an active area for electrode pair 275 expands and moves rigidbar 274 to the right. Conversely, when the electrode pair 276 isactuated, an active area for electrode pair 276 expands and moves rigidbar 274 to the left. Alternating actuation of the electrodes 275 and 276provides an effectively larger total stroke 279 for the rigid bar 274.One variation of this actuator includes adding anisotropic pre-strain tothe polymer portion 273 such that the polymer portion 273 has highpre-strain (and stiffness) in the direction perpendicular to the rigidbar displacement. Another variation is to eliminate one of the electrodepairs 275 and 276.

In another embodiment, a portion of an electroactive polymer isstiffened to affect a direction of deflection. FIG. 3C illustrates anelectroactive polymer transducer 120 comprising stiff segments 122 thataffect deflection in accordance with a specific embodiment of thepresent invention.

Stiff segments 122 comprise laminates or stiffened portions of polymer124 arranged on polymer 124 while the polymer is in a pre-strainedstate, e.g. while it is stretched. Pre-strained portions 126 are formedbetween segments 122. Stiff segments 122 are characterized by a primarydirection 123 and decrease deflection of the pre-strained portion in theprimary direction 123. The stiffeners 122 also maintain pre-strain forportions 126 along the axis of segments 122 in direction 123. Inaddition, stiffeners 122 permit deflection only in orthogonal direction125. It should be noted that the increased stiffness in direction 123comprises the increased stiffness provided by segments 122 as well asthe increased stiffness of polymer in the pre-strain direction 123.

As shown, numerous stiff segments 122 are arranged in parallel andpermit an increased cumulative output in direction 125. Stiff segments122 may be arranged in other configurations to achieve directionalcompliance of transducer 120, such as radial segments for example. Stiffsegments 122 may be acquired using stiffened portions of polymer 124(e.g., by curing) or one or more laminates disposed where stiff segments122 are shown.

Dual Cure Pre-strain Fabrication

As the pre-strained polymers may be implemented both in the micro andmacro scales, in a wide variety of actuator designs, with a wide rangeof materials, and in a broad range of applications, fabricationprocesses used with the present invention may vary greatly. In oneaspect, the present invention provides methods for fabricatingelectroactive polymers and electroactive polymer transducers and devicesincluding one or more pre-strained polymers.

In one embodiment, the present invention applies pre-strain to apartially cured electroactive polymer. The partially cured polymer isthen further cured to support and maintain the pre-strain. Thistechnique is useful when the electroactive polymer comprises one or morereactive groups and curing may result in crosslinking of the polymerchains and provide support for the pre-strain.

FIG. 4 illustrates a dual cure process flow 400 for forming anelectroactive polymer in accordance with one embodiment of the presentinvention. Processes in accordance with the present invention mayinclude up to several additional steps not described or illustrated herein order not to obscure the present invention. In some cases,fabrication processes of the present invention may include conventionalmaterials and techniques such as commercially available polymers andtechniques used in fabrication of microelectronics and electronicstechnologies. In addition, fabrication of devices employed electroactivepolymers described herein may include additional steps not detailed inorder not to obscure the present invention. For example, micro diaphragmactuators may be produced in situ on silicon using conventionaltechniques to form the holes and apply the polymer and electrodes.

Process flow 400 begins by partially curing a composition comprising aprecursor for an electroactive polymer to form a partially curedelectroactive polymer (402). In one embodiment, the electroactivepolymer is partially cured until the polymer possesses a mechanicalintegrity suitable for elastically stretching the partially curedelectroactive polymer. Curing may be performed thermally,photochemically, or with radiation for example. Thermal curing may beemployed without the addition of any chemical agents, or upon theaddition of a suitable initiating agent or one or more additional curingagents. The thermal curing may be carried out in a conventional oven,for example. The polymerizable groups in the electroactive polymerprecursor may undergo a chain-growth polymerization (such as that incompounds containing carbon-carbon double bonds), a ring-openingpolymerization (such as that in epoxies, tetrahydrofurans, lactones,lactams, and alicyclics), or step-growth polymerization (such as that inthe formation of polyesters, polyamides, polyimides, and polyurethanes).

The partially cured electroactive polymer is then stretched to achieve apre-strain for the electroactive polymer (404). Pre-strain may beachieved by a number of techniques. In one embodiment, pre-strain isachieved by mechanically stretching a polymer in or more directions andtemporarily fixing it to one or more solid members (e.g., rigid platesor a manufacturing frame) while stretched. The polymer may alternativelybe held temporarily in pre-strain using a suitable rigid substrate, e.g.by stretching the polymer and then attaching it to the rigid substrate.Suitable anisotropic and elastic pre-strain quantities were describedabove.

Process flow 400 then proceeds by further curing a portion of theelectroactive polymer to stiffen the portion (or entire polymer) (406).After curing, the stiffened portion comprises a polymer component thatwas cured while the electroactive polymer was strained in order to lockin or maintain the pre-strain. The polymer component may comprise theelectroactive polymer or a separate additive such as a polymer precursordescribed below. In another embodiment, the electroactive polymercomprises a compliant electroactive polymer film and a support polymerformed in or on the compliant electroactive polymer film. Curing of thesupport polymer stiffens the portion. The second curing may be performedthermally, photochemically, or with radiation for example. Thepolymerizable groups in the electroactive polymer precursor (orpartially formed/cured polymer chains/networks) may further undergo achain-growth polymerization, a ring-opening polymerization, orstep-growth polymerization. Further, existing polymer chains may becross-linked (or further cross-linked beyond some existing cross-linkstate) to effect the curing/stiffening. Generally, the stiffened portionmay comprise any polymer precursor that when cured (by chain growth orcross-linking), at least partially, stiffens the electroactive polymermaterial in the portion.

The use of curing mechanisms permits the stiffness and force output of apolymer to be increased. The maximum actuated strain may reduce withincreasing stiffness, but higher force output is useful in manyapplications. In one embodiment, a cured portion possesses an elasticmodulus less than about 10 MPa after curing when the portion is employedfor actuation. The polymer may also be cured to a desired stiffness, andmay also be cured to attain another property, such as a desiredthickness after releasing from the pre-strain frame. In anotherembodiment, the stiffened portion is further cured when it is employedto maintain pre-strain in a neighboring portion of the polymer. Forexample, the stiffened portion may be further cured to possess anelastic modulus above 50 MPa when it is employed to maintain pre-strainin a neighboring portion of the polymer.

The second curing may comprise exposing the electroactive polymer toradiation such as ultraviolet or infrared radiation. A mask or screenmay be applied to a surface of the polymer to define the shape and sizeof the stiffened portion. The stiffened portion may then be spatiallyconfigured to provide forces that resist contraction forces in apre-strained portion resulting from stretching the pre-strained portion.Some masks provide differential radiation exposure to multiple portionsof the polymer, thus permitting different portions of the polymer to becured and stiffened to varying extents. In a specific embodiment, themask reduces the amount of radiation exposure to an edge portion of theelectroactive polymer. This increases the thickness of the edge portionand increases the polymer breakdown strength in this the edge portion (asimilar effect may acquired using a support layer as described abovewith respect to FIG. 3A).

After the second curing is complete, the electroactive polymer isreleased from rigid frame or substrate temporarily fixing thepre-strain. A releasing agent such as isopropyl alcohol may be used tofacilitate the release from a layered substrate.

After curing and formation of the electroactive polymer with pre-strain,one or more electrodes may be deposited onto a surface of the polymer.In a specific embodiment, one or more graphite electrodes are patternedand deposited using a mask or stencil. Electrodes comprising conductivegreases mixed with a conductive silicone may be fabricated by dissolvingthe conductive grease and the uncured conductive silicone in a solvent.The solution may then be sprayed on the electroactive polymer materialand may include a mask or stencil to achieve a particular electrode oractive area pattern.

The transducer, comprising the pre-strained polymer and electrodes, maythen be packaged or further assembled according to an application.Packaging may include assembly of multiple transducers mechanicallylinked or stacked as multiple layers. In addition, mechanical andelectrical connections to the transducers may be formed according to aparticular device design.

Maintaining Pre-strain Via Support Layer Coupling

In another aspect, the present invention relates to a method forfabricating an electroactive polymer that comprises a support layercoupled to the polymer that maintains pre-strain in a portion of anelectroactive polymer.

FIG. 5 illustrates a support layer coupling process flow 500 for formingan electroactive polymer in accordance with one embodiment of thepresent invention. Processes in accordance with the present inventionmay include up to several additional steps not described or illustratedhere in order not to obscure the present invention.

Process flow 500 begins by stretching the electroactive polymer toachieve a pre-strain in a portion of the polymer (502). Severaltechniques for stretching a polymer to achieve and temporarily maintainelastic pre-strain were described above with respect to 404 of processflow 400. For example, the electroactive polymer may be mechanicallystretched in or more directions and temporarily fixed to one or moresolid members (e.g., rigid plates or a manufacturing frame) whilestretched.

Before applying the pre-strain, the electroactive polymer may bereceived or fabricated according to several methods. In one embodiment,the polymer is a commercially available product such as a commerciallyavailable acrylic elastomer film. In another embodiment, the polymer isa film fabricated by one of casting, dipping, spin coating or spraying.Additional details for polymer fabrication are provided with respect to704 of process flow 700.

Before application of the support layer, one or more electrodes may bedeposited onto a surface of the polymer. Suitable techniques to apply anelectrode, such as spraying and patterning using a mask or stencil, weredescribed above.

Process flow 500 proceeds by coupling a support layer to a surfaceportion of the polymer when the polymer is pre-strained (504). Thesupport layer overlaps the pre-strained portion and at least partiallymaintains the pre-strain in the portion. The support layer may alsooverlap one or more electrodes deposited on the polymer surface.Alternatively, as mentioned above, the support layer may be configuredas an electrode. One exemplary support layer was described above withrespect to FIG. 3A. In one embodiment, the support layer includes anelastic modulus greater than an elastic modulus for the polymer. Thesupport layer may be a) deposited on the surface portion and curedthereon for coupling, or b) attached as a pre-cured film to thepolymer-electrode transducer using a suitable adhesive. In some cases alight powder such as talc is desirable to prevent the support layer fromsticking to itself. In a specific embodiment, the support layer includesa polymer, such as an elastic film, that is coupled via lamination tothe surface portion of the polymer.

After securing the support layer to the electroactive polymer, thelaminate is then released from the frame or device applying thetemporary pre-strain. Releasing the laminate from the frame may forcethe support layer into compression. In some cases, the initialpre-strain in the electroactive polymer may reduce.

In a specific embodiment for process 500, a 1-mm thick acrylicelectroactive polymer film was pre-strained 400%×400% in area. Thepre-strained area was 4″×4″. Carbon fibrils in 70% isopropyl alcoholwere applied onto the polymer as electrodes. The support layercomprised: 2.8 g of a mixture comprising 2 parts of 118 silicone to 1part of 10 centistoke silicone oil. 0.7 g naptha was also added to themixture to help spread the support layer. When released from thetemporary pre-strain support, the acrylic electroactive polymer filmcontracted to about 200%×200% in area pre-strain. The polymer producedactuated strains as high as 70-80% linear strain, which is substantiallyabove that achieved by an electroactive polymer without any pre-strain.

Curing Polymer Precursors to Stiffen a Polymer Portion

In another embodiment, the present invention cures a polymer precursorto maintain pre-strain in an electroactive polymer. The curable polymerprecursor may be applied to a surface of an electroactive polymer sheetor film and allowed to coat, disperse or diffuse into the film. Theadditives are then cured to form one or more stiffer portions. In somecases, the curing “locks in” and maintains the pre-strain in theelectroactive polymer film by forming a crosslinked network of polymerchains.

FIG. 6 illustrates a process flow 600 that employs a polymer precursorfor forming an electroactive polymer in accordance with one embodimentof the present invention. Processes in accordance with the presentinvention may include up to several additional steps not described orillustrated here in order not to obscure the present invention.

Process flow 600 begins by applying a polymer precursor to a surface ofa portion of the electroactive polymer (or the entire portion, see FIG.2B) (602). The electroactive polymer may be previously received orfabricated according to several methods, such as spin coating, asdescribed above. In one embodiment, the polymer precursor (for example,acrylates with a suitable initiating agent) is applied to anelectroactive polymer film and allowed to disperse into the bulk of thefilm. In one embodiment, the polymer precursor is applied onto one ormore portions of a surface of an electroactive polymer by spraying(often from a dilute solution) or printing. The polymer precursor mayalso be selectively applied to limited portions through shadow maskingor printing to allow for patterning of precise shapes and sizes of thesurface portion, local reinforcement at the edges of a polymer, etc.Using a mask allows multiple portions of a portion to be easilypatterned in a single step. The amount of precursor added will vary withthe desired amount of pre-strain in the portion and/or a desired amountof contraction when releasing the polymer from temporary pre-strain.

In one embodiment, the polymer precursor is applied to all surfaces ofthe polymer where pre-strain is desired. In another embodiment, astiffened portion of the electroactive polymer treated with the polymerprecursor then serves as a structural element for holding pre-strain inanother portion of the polymer (see stiff regions of FIG. 2A).

In many embodiments, the polymer precursor then at least partiallydiffuses into the polymer. It is understood that incomplete diffusionand dispersion into the polymer is suitable in many case. For less thanfull penetration, stiff layers may be formed in the polymer, which isacceptable in many applications. Diffusion into the polymer may proceedfor an extended time, e.g., hours. Again, some embodiments involvemerely coating the precursor onto the polymer and later curing thecoating, without significantly diffusing into the underlying polymersubstrate, to form a bilayer structure—resembling a laminate.

The polymer is then stretched to achieve a pre-strain in a portion ofthe polymer (604). Several techniques for stretching a polymer toachieve and temporarily maintain anisotropic and/or elastic pre-strainwere described above with respect to 404 of process flow 400. In anotherembodiment, the polymer precursor is applied onto the surface after theelectroactive polymer has been pre-strained. This may reduce time neededfor the precursor to penetrate into the polymer.

Process flow proceeds by curing the polymer precursor to stiffen saidportion (606). The polymer precursor, when cured, at least partiallystiffens the electroactive polymer material in the portion. The polymerprecursor may comprise contain a dimmer (i.e., each molecule containstwo polymerizable groups) or an oligomer. One suitable class of polymerprecursor includes acrylates. Many curable compounds may be used otherthan acrylates, including for example, methacrylates, epoxies,silicones, and the like. Any suitable stiffening agent that provides thenecessary physical stiffening may be employed. The chemical compositionis not a controlling factor.

The curing may be performed thermally, photochemically, etc. Thepolymerizable groups in the electroactive polymer precursor may undergoa chain-growth polymerization, a ring-opening polymerization, orstep-growth polymerization, for example. Similar to that described abovewith respect to 406 of process flow 400, the curing may compriseexposing the electroactive polymer to radiation. A mask or screen may beapplied to a surface of the polymer to define the curing action. Somemasks provide differential radiation exposure to multiple portions ofthe polymer, thus permitting different portions of the polymer to becured and stiffened to varying extents.

The amount of polymer precursor often affects stiffness of the portionafter curing. Thus, a greater amount of the polymer precursor may beapplied onto a second portion than a first portion.

After curing, one or more electrodes may be deposited onto a surface ofthe polymer. The surface may include the portion to be stiffened (seeFIG. 2B) or a second pre-strained portion of the electroactive polymerbordered by the portion to be stiffened (see FIG. 2A). Suitabletechniques to apply an electrode, such as spraying and patterning usinga mask or stencil, were described above. The laminate is alsosubsequently released from the frame or device applying the temporarypre-strain.

In a specific embodiment for process flow 600, 1,6-Hexanedioldiacrylcate (3.2 grams) and benzoyl peroxide (0.32 grams) were mixedwith 20 ml ethyl acetate. The solution was sprayed onto a VHB 4910acrylic electroactive polymer with 300%×300% pre-strain. The polymer wasthen placed in a vacuum oven at 80 deg. C. for 5 hours. In this case,crosslinking in the polymer film caused by the polymer precursor waseffective to support pre-strain. However, in this case, as the polymerbecomes stiffer, the actuated strain upon application of a voltagereduces.

In another specific embodiment, 6-hexanediol diacrylcate (2.0 grams) andbenzoyl peroxide (0.2 grams) were mixed with 40 ml ethyl acetate. Thesolution was sprayed onto a VHB 4910 acrylic electroactive polymer filmwith 400%×400% pre-strain. The polymer films were then placed in avacuum oven at 78 deg. C. for 4 hours.

Diacrylate amount 0 0.4 0.5 0.6 1.0 gram/25 sq. inch Thickness on pre-1.4 1.53 strain frame (mil) Thickness after 38 3.35 3.7 2.6 2.2 released(mil) Actuation at 6.2 kV — 100% 100% 80% 20% (area increase) 200% @ 7kV 50% @ 8 kVPre-mixed Polymer Precursor Curing

In another embodiment, a precursor for a support polymer is mixed with aprecursor for an electroactive polymer before forming the polymer, e.g.into a thin film. This is useful for electroactive polymers, such aselastomers, that are not chemically crosslinked and therefore can bedissolved and mixed together with the support polymer precursor.

FIG. 7 illustrates a process flow 700 that employs a compositioncomprising a polymer precursor for a support polymer and a precursor foran electroactive polymer for forming an electroactive polymer inaccordance with one embodiment of the present invention. Processes inaccordance with the present invention may include up to severaladditional steps not described or illustrated here in order not toobscure the present invention.

Process flow 700 begins by providing a composition comprising aprecursor for an electroactive polymer and a precursor for a supportpolymer (702). Specific examples of polymer precursors were discussedabove. Specific examples of non-crosslinked electroactive polymersinclude Kraton (a polystyrene-polybutadiene-polystyrene triblockcopolymer by Shell) and thermoplastic polyurethanes.

The electroactive polymer is then formed from the composition (704). Inone embodiment, the polymer is a film fabricated by one of casting,dipping, spin coating or spraying. Spin coating typically involvesapplying the composition on a rigid substrate and spinning to a desiredthickness. The composition may include a precursor for a supportpolymer, a precursor for an electroactive polymer and a volatiledispersant or solvent. The amount of dispersant, the volatility of thedispersant, and the spin speed may be altered to produce a desiredpolymer. By way of example, polyurethane films may be spin coated in asolution of polyurethane and tetrahydrofuran (THF) or cyclohexanone. Inthe case of silicon substrates, the polymer may be spin coated on analuminized plastic or a silicon carbide. The aluminum and siliconcarbide form a sacrificial layer that is subsequently removed by asuitable etchant. Electroactive polymer films in the range of onemicrometer thick may been produced by spin coating in this manner. Spincoating of polymer films, such as silicone, may be done on a smoothnon-sticking plastic substrate, such as polymethyl methacrylate orteflon. The polymer film may then be released by mechanically peeling orwith the assistance of alcohol or other suitable release agent. Spincoating is also suitable for producing thicker polymers in the range of10-750 micrometers.

The polymer is then stretched to achieve a pre-strain in a portion ofthe polymer (706). Several techniques for stretching a polymer toachieve and temporarily maintain anisotropic and/or elastic pre-strainwere described above with respect to 404 of process flow 400.

The precursor is then cured such that the support polymer forms thesupport polymer in a stiffened portion of the polymer (708). Aftercuring, the electroactive polymer comprises two components: anunderlying electroactive polymer and an additive. The compositeelectroactive polymer then comprises a flexible electroactive polymersheet or film and a more rigid retaining polymer formed in or on theactive polymer sheet and defining the stiffened region. The polymerprecursor, when cured, at least partially stiffens the electroactivepolymer material in the portion. In one embodiment, the polymer crosslinks with the support polymer. The curing may be performed thermally,photochemically, with radiation, etc. The polymerizable groups in theelectroactive polymer precursor may undergo a chain-growthpolymerization, a ring-opening polymerization, or step-growthpolymerization, for example. Similar to that described above withrespect to 406 of process flow 400, the curing may comprise exposing theelectroactive polymer to radiation. A mask or screen may be applied to asurface of the polymer to define the curing action. Some masks providedifferential radiation exposure to multiple portions of the polymer,thus permitting different portions of the polymer to be cured andstiffened to varying extents. The amount of polymer precursor oftenaffects stiffness of the portion after curing. Thus, a greater amount ofthe polymer precursor may be applied onto a second portion than a firstportion.

The polymer precursor, when cured, at least partially maintains thepre-strain in the pre-strained portion after curing. In one embodiment,the stiffened portion overlaps the pre-strained portion (see FIG. 2B).In another embodiment, the stiffened portion neighbors the pre-strainedportion of the electroactive polymer (see FIG. 2A).

After curing, one or more electrodes may be deposited onto a surface ofthe polymer according to the creation of one or more active areas forthe polymer. The polymer is also subsequently released from the frame ordevice applying the temporary pre-strain.

Mixing a precursor for an electroactive polymer and a precursor for asupport polymer before forming the electroactive polymer may provide amore integrated composite polymer. After forming the composite polymer,the support polymer may be very evenly dispersed among the electroactivepolymer chains. This highly integrated composite electroactive polymermay provide better mechanical stability, better support for pre-strain,and higher performance.

Multifunctionality

Electroactive polymers may convert between electrical energy andmechanical energy in a bi-directional manner. Thus, transducers asdescribed herein may be used in an actuator that coverts electricalenergy to mechanical energy and/or a generator that converts frommechanical energy to electrical energy. Sensing electrical properties ofan electroactive polymer transducer also permits sensing functionality.

FIGS. 1A and 1B may be used to show one manner in which the transducerportion 10 converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. For example,if the transducer portion 10 is mechanically stretched by externalforces to a thinner, larger area shape such as that shown in FIG. 1B,and a relatively small voltage difference (less than that necessary toactuate the film to the configuration in FIG. 1B) is applied betweenelectrodes 14 and 16, the transducer portion 10 will contract in areabetween the electrodes to a shape such as in FIG. 1A when the externalforces are removed. Stretching the transducer refers to deflecting thetransducer from its original resting position—typically to result in alarger net area between the electrodes, e.g. in the plane defined bydirections 18 and 20 between the electrodes. The resting position refersto the position of the transducer portion 10 having no externalelectrical or mechanical input and may comprise any pre-strain in thepolymer. Once the transducer portion 10 is stretched, the relativelysmall voltage difference is provided such that the resultingelectrostatic forces are insufficient to balance the elastic restoringforces of the stretch. The transducer portion 10 therefore contracts,and it becomes thicker and has a smaller planar area in the planedefined by directions 18 and 20 (orthogonal to the thickness betweenelectrodes). When polymer 12 becomes thicker, it separates electrodes 14and 16 and their corresponding unlike charges, thus raising theelectrical energy and voltage of the charge. Further, when electrodes 14and 16 contract to a-smaller area, like charges within each electrodecompress, also raising the electrical energy and voltage of the charge.Thus, with different charges on electrodes 14 and 16, contraction from ashape such as that shown in FIG. 1B to one such as that shown in FIG. 1Araises the electrical energy of the charge. That is, mechanicaldeflection is being turned into electrical energy and the transducerportion 10 is acting as a generator.

In some cases, the transducer portion 10 may be described electricallyas a variable capacitor. The capacitance decreases for the shape changegoing from that shown in FIG. 1B to that shown in FIG. 1A. Typically,the voltage difference between electrodes 14 and 16 will be raised bycontraction. This is normally the case, for example, if additionalcharge is not added or subtracted from electrodes 14 and 16 during thecontraction process. The increase in electrical energy, U, may beillustrated by the formula U=0.5 Q²/ C, where Q is the amount ofpositive charge on the positive electrode and C is the variablecapacitance which relates to the intrinsic dielectric properties ofpolymer 12 and its geometry. If Q is fixed and C decreases, then theelectrical energy U increases. The increase in electrical energy andvoltage can be recovered or used in a suitable device or electroniccircuit in electrical communication with electrodes 14 and 16. Inaddition, the transducer portion 10 may be mechanically coupled to amechanical input that deflects the polymer and provides mechanicalenergy.

Electroactive polymers of the present invention may also be configuredas a sensor. Generally, an electroactive polymer sensor detects a“parameter” and/or changes in the parameter. The parameter is usually aphysical property of an object such as strain, deformation, velocity,location, contact, acceleration, vibration, pressure, size, etc. In somecases, the parameter being sensed is associated with a physical “event”.The physical event that is detected may be the attainment of aparticular value or state for example. An electroactive polymer sensoris configured such that a portion of the electroactive polymer deflectsin response to the change in a parameter being sensed. The electricalenergy state and deflection state of the polymer are related. The changein electrical energy or a change in the electrical impedance of anactive area resulting from the deflection may then be detected bysensing electronics in electrical communication with the active areaelectrodes. This change may comprise a capacitance change of thepolymer, a resistance change of the polymer, and/or resistance change ofthe electrodes, or a combination thereof. Electronic circuits inelectrical communication with electrodes detect the electrical propertychange. If a change in capacitance or resistance of the transducer isbeing measured for example, one applies electrical energy to electrodesincluded in the transducer and observes a change in the electricalparameters.

For ease of understanding, the present invention is mainly described andshown by focusing on a single direction of energy conversion. Morespecifically, the present invention focuses on converting electricalenergy to mechanical energy. However, in all the figures and discussionsfor the present invention, it is important to note that the polymers anddevices may convert between electrical energy and mechanical energybi-directionally. Thus, any of the exemplary transducers describedherein may be used with a generator or sensor. Typically, a generator ofthe present invention comprises a polymer arranged in a manner thatcauses a change in electric field in response to deflection of a portionof the polymer. The change in electric field, along with changes in thepolymer dimension in the direction of the field, produces a change involtage, and hence a change in electrical energy.

As the terms are used herein, a transducer refers to an electroactivepolymer with at least two electrodes; an electroactive polymer devicerefers to a transducer with at least one additional mechanical couplingor component; an electroactive polymer actuator refers to a transduceror device configured to produce mechanical output of some form; anelectroactive polymer generator refers to a transducer or deviceconfigured to produce electrical energy; and an electroactive polymersensor refers to a transducer or device configured to sense a propertyor event.

Thus, polymers and transducers of the present invention may be used asan actuator to convert from electrical to mechanical energy, a generatorto convert from mechanical to electrical energy, a sensor to detectchanges in the mechanical or electrical state of the polymer, orcombinations thereof. Mechanical energy may be applied to a transducerin a manner that allows electrical energy to be removed or electricalchanges to be sensed. Many methods for applying mechanical energy,removing electrical energy and sensing electrical changes from thetransducer are possible. Actuation, generation and sensing devices mayrequire conditioning electronics of some type. For instance, at the veryleast, a minimum amount of circuitry is needed to apply or removeelectrical energy from the transducer. Further, as another example,circuitry of varying degrees of complexity may be used to senseelectrical states of a sensing transducer.

CONCLUSION

While this invention has been described in terms of several preferredembodiments, there are alterations, permutations, and equivalents thatfall within the scope of this invention which have been omitted forbrevity's sake. By way of example, although the present invention hasbeen described in terms of several polymer materials and geometries, thepresent invention is not limited to these materials and geometries. Itis therefore intended that the scope of the invention should bedetermined with reference to the appended claims.

1. An electroactive polymer transducer for converting between electricaland mechanical energy, the transducer comprising: at least twoelectrodes; and an electroactive polymer in electrical communicationwith the at least two electrodes, including a pre-strained portion, andincluding a stiffened portion configured to maintain pre-strain in thepre-strained portion, wherein the electroactive polymer transducer doesnot include an external frame or an external mechanism configured tomaintain pre-strain in the pre-strained portion.
 2. The transducer ofclaim 1 wherein the electroactive polymer comprises a compliantelectroactive polymer film and a support polymer formed in or on thecompliant electroactive polymer film that defines the stiffened polymerportion.
 3. The transducer of claim 1 wherein the stiffened portioncomprises a polymer component that was cured while the electroactivepolymer was pre-strained to at least partially maintain the pre-strain.4. The transducer of claim 1 wherein the stiffened portion is configuredto provide forces that oppose elastic contraction forces in thepre-strained portion resulting from stretching the pre-strained portion.5. The transducer of claim 1 wherein the stiffened portionperimetrically borders the pre-strained portion.
 6. The transducer ofclaim 1 wherein the electroactive polymer comprises an elastic modulusless than about 40 MPa.
 7. The transducer of claim 6 wherein theelectroactive polymer comprises an elastic modulus less than about 10MPa.
 8. The transducer of claim 1 wherein the electroactive polymercomprises an elastic modulus less than about 10 MPa.
 9. The transducerof claim 8 wherein the stiffened polymer portion comprises an elasticmodulus greater than about 50 MPa.
 10. The transducer of claim 1 whereinthe pre-strained portion includes an anisotropic pre-strain.
 11. Thetransducer of claim 1 wherein the pre-strained portion is elasticallypre-strained.
 12. The transducer of claim 1 wherein pre-strained portioncomprises substantially the entire electroactive polymer.
 13. Thetransducer of claim 1 wherein the stiffened portion comprises a linearsegment characterized by a primary direction and the linear segmentdecreases deflection of the pre-strained portion in the primarydirection.
 14. An electroactive polymer transducer for convertingbetween electrical and mechanical energy, the transducer comprising: afirst electrode; an electroactive polymer in electrical communicationwith the at least two electrodes and including a pre-strained portion;and a support layer coupled to a surface portion of the electroactivepolymer and configured to maintain pre-strain in the pre-strainedportion, wherein the support layer comprises an electrical resistanceless than that of the electroactive polymer, and wherein the supportlayer is configured as a second electrode for the transducer.
 15. Thetransducer of claim 14 wherein the support layer overlaps thepre-strained portion.
 16. The transducer of claim 15 wherein the supportlayer is disposed over one of the at least two electrodes.
 17. Thetransducer of claim 14 wherein the support layer is laminated to thesurface portion.
 18. The transducer of claim 14 wherein the supportlayer comprises a greater stiffness than the electroactive polymer. 19.The transducer of claim 14 wherein the support layer comprises the samematerial as the electroactive polymer.
 20. The transducer of claim 14wherein the support layer is configured to deflect with deflection ofthe electroactive polymer.
 21. The transducer of claim 20 wherein thesurface portion resembles a geometric shape.
 22. The transducer of claim14 wherein the electroactive polymer comprises an elastic modulus lessthan about 40 MPa.
 23. The transducer of claim 22 wherein theelectroactive polymer comprises an elastic modulus less than about 10MPa.
 24. The transducer of claim 14 wherein the support layer comprisesan elastic modulus greater than about 50 MPa.
 25. The transducer ofclaim 24 wherein the electroactive polymer comprises an elastic modulusless than about 10 MPa.
 26. The transducer of claim 14 wherein theelectroactive polymer transducer does not include an external frame oran external mechanism configured to hold pre-strain in the pre-strainedportion.
 27. The transducer of claim 14 wherein the pre-strained portionincludes an anisotropic pre-strain.
 28. The transducer of claim 14wherein the pre-strained portion is elastically pre-strained.
 29. Anelectroactive polymer transducer for converting between electrical andmechanical energy, the transducer comprising: at least two electrodes;and an electroactive polymer in electrical communication with the atleast two electrodes and including a first pre-strained portion and asecond pre-strained portion, wherein the first pre-strained portioncomprises a greater pre-strain than the second pre-strained portion. 30.The transducer of claim 29 wherein the first pre-strained portionincludes an anisotropic pre-strain.
 31. The transducer of claim 29wherein the first pre-strained portion comprises a greater pre-strainthan the second pre-strained portion in a linear direction.
 32. Thetransducer of claim 29 wherein the first pre-strained portion and thesecond pre-strained portion each comprise a polymer component that hasbeen cured, at least partially, to stiffen each portion.
 33. Thetransducer of claim 29 wherein the electroactive polymer comprises acompliant electroactive polymer film and a support polymer formed in oron the compliant electroactive polymer film.
 34. The transducer of claim29 wherein the electroactive polymer comprises an elastic modulus lessthan about 40 MPa.
 35. The transducer of claim 34 wherein theelectroactive polymer comprises an elastic modulus less than about 10MPa.
 36. The transducer of claim 29 wherein the first pre-strainedportion and the second pre-strained portion are elasticallypre-strained.
 37. The transducer of claim 29 wherein the electroactivepolymer transducer does not include an external frame or an externalmechanism configured to hold pre-strain in the first pre-strainedportion and the second pre-strained portion.
 38. An electroactivepolymer transducer for converting between electrical and mechanicalenergy, the transducer comprising: at least two electrodes; anelectroactive polymer in electrical communication with the at least twoelectrodes and including a pre-strained portion; and a support layercoupled to a surface portion of the electroactive polymer and configuredto maintain pre-strain in the pre-strained portion, wherein the supportlayer comprises the same material as the electroactive polymer.
 39. Anelectroactive polymer transducer for converting between electrical andmechanical energy, the transducer comprising: at least two electrodes;and an electroactive polymer in electrical communication with the atleast two electrodes and including a first pre-strained portion and asecond pre-strained portion, wherein the first pre-strained portioncomprises a greater pre-strain than the second pre-strained portion,wherein the first pre-strained portion and the second pre-strainedportion each comprise a polymer component that has been cured, at leastpartially, to stiffen each portion.